Death of a Salesman Essay Example for Free

Death of a Salesman Essay What techniques does Arthur Miller use to highlight the conflict between past and present in Death of a Salesman? How do these techniques also demonstrate his main themes? Death of a Salesman is set in a time when the capitalist system is changing. It is set in the late 1940s, not long after the Wall Street crash in 1929. Willy Loman is unable to adjust to these changes and therefore, there is conflict between the past, where his dreams were achievable, and the present, where he has fallen foul of the capitalist system and is no longer any use to the firm. These conflicts are personified in Willy, and Arthur Miller uses a number of techniques to highlight this. The techniques Miller uses represent Willys mind and they distinguish between past and present. These theatrical methods also help to demonstrate the main themes in Death of a Salesman. These theatrical methods include music, lighting, wall-lines, scenery, the use of leaves and also use of costumes. In my essay I plan to explain what each method conveys to the audience and show how Miller uses these methods effectively to highlight the conflicts. Music is used to highlight significant points and themes in the play. Also, the type of music sets the mood for a scene. It creates atmosphere and conveys to the audience the emotions of the characters. Also, silence can highlight a particular scene. The absence of music means that the audience focuses entirely on the conversation taking place. In Death of a Salesman, flute music is heard constantly throughout the duration of the play. It bridges the play, as it is heard both at the beginning and the end. The flute music evokes a faraway, idyllic world, representing the past. It also represents a contrast between Willy and his father. Willys father was a pioneer; he made flutes and sold his own products. Willy, on the other hand, has to sell other peoples goods to make a living. A good example of music being used to set the scene is at the beginning of the restaurant scene. The lights have blacked out signifying the end of the previous scene Suddenly rollicking music is heard. This is setting the mood of the scene for the audience. It shows that the atmosphere is happy and lively. This is to show the mood of the present time. It is a contrast to the past. By having rollicking music, Miller is highlighting this contrast. This links to the theme of Happy and shows more of an insight into his character. Happy has chosen this restaurant and it shows the kind of life he lives, and this is a contrast to Willy.

Transport Layer Network Layer Protocols Attack

Transport Layer Network Layer Protocols Attack Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1: Background Data Communication technologies and the underlying protocols in the twenty-first century is one of the critical elements that acts as the backbone for electronic commerce and use of the world-wide-web (Todd and Johnson, 2001[1]). The increase in the growth of electronic commerce as well as other forms of internet-based secure communication have increased not only the risks associated with networking related attacks that involve in the loss of personal information and possible financial loss to the victims. One of the major components in the Internet communication is the underlying protocol that governs the compilation and communication of the information from the source computer to the target and back (Nash et al, 2001[2]). The role of the protocols in the networking also has a key influence on its ability to securely deliver the information as part of the overall communication architecture. This makes it clear that the robustness of the protocol and the extent to which a given proto col architecture can resist intruder attacks through encryption efficiency etc dictates the security associated with the information transfer as argued by Todd and Johnson, (2001). In this report a critical overview on the transport layer and the network layer protocols of the TCP/IP protocol architecture is presented to the reader. The research aims to throw light on the possible security attacks on these protocols and the possible countermeasures in order to prevent such attacks. The attacks in these cases mainly concern with the infringement of the information through unauthorised access bypassing the security or breaking the encryption surrounding the information being transported. 1.2: Aim and Objectives The aim of this research is to investigate the possible attacks on the Transport layer Network layer protocols and present possible countermeasures on overcoming the threat of these attacks on the day-to-day Internet-based data communication. The above aim of the research is accomplished through embracing the research on the following objectives To conduct a literature review on the Transport and Network layers of the TCP/IP protocol architecture. To conduct a critical overview on the possible types of attacks on the Transport Layer and Network Layer protocols. To present a critical analysis on the possible countermeasures to prevent the attacks on the Transport layer protocols. 1.3: Research Methodology A qualitative approach is used to conduct the research. Since there are five layers to the TCP/IP model of which the research aims to investigate the protocols associated with the Transport and Network layer, a qualitative approach is deemed effective as the infrastructure required to simulate tests for conducting a quantitative research is limited for conducting the research. As it is also apparent that the analysis on the five layers of the TCP/IP model is beyond the scope of the research conducted in this report, the research conducted mainly focuses on the key threats and possible types of attacks on the protocols of the TCP/IP layers discussed. 1.4: Chapter Overview Chapter 1: Introduction This is the current chapter that presents the aim, objectives and brief overview on the research conducted to the reader. Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter presents an overview on the layers of the TCP/IP model followed by a detailed overview on the key Transport layer and Network layer protocols. The chapter also presents a brief overview on the network attacks and the possible threats associated with the Internet data transfer. Chapter 3: Protocol Attacks This chapter presents a critical overview on the types of attacks on the Transport Layer and Network Layer protocols. The chapter presents a critical analysis on the methods used and the potential losses that may result due to the attacks. Chapter 4: Countermeasures This chapter presents a critical overview on the possible countermeasures that are implemented in order to prevent the attacks discussed in chapter 3. A comparative study on the countermeasures discussed is also presented in this chapter. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1: Internet Security in the twenty-first century The increase in the need for internet security from unauthorised access and malicious attacks is not only due to the need protecting personal/sensitive information of the users but also the service providers (Ganesh and Thorsteinson, 2003[3]). This is naturally because of the fact that the service providers can perform effectively only when the requests sent to the server are valid thus making justifiable use of the resources (Rayns et al, 2003[4]). The use of the resources in terms of the number of connections and the allocation of memory to cater for each connection established with the web server of the service provider is deemed to attribute to the extent to which a given website establishment performs effectively. This makes it clear that the need for internet security is not only a matter of protecting personal information but also effective utilisation of the computer resources dedicated for the purpose as argued by Rayns et al (2003). Walden (2007)[5] further argues that the security over the internet is mainly accomplished through implementing security measures on the connection-oriented and connection-less protocol used for transferring information from one end to another. It is interesting to note that the above focuses especially on the resource utilisation and protection of computer from malicious attacks through ensuring that the communication to and from the computer are not only secure but also valid. It is necessary to ensure both the validity and security of a given connection over the internet because of the former corresponds to the availability of the service whilst the later attribute to the reliability of the available service (Walden, 2007). It is also interesting to note that the prevention of unauthorised access to information systems connected to the Internet is deemed effective as opposed to implementing access control on each individual system as argued by Todd and Johnson (2001). This makes i t clear that the implementation of the security over the Internet is mainly through implementing the preventive measures against malicious attacks through strengthening the protocols used in the various layers of the TCP/IP model. As the TCP/IP model forms the basis for communication over the internet, it is apparent that the robustness of the protocols implemented in each layer of the TCP/IP stack dictates the effectiveness of the Internet security implemented (Walden, 2007). In the next section a critical overview of the TCP/IP model is presented to the reader. 2.2: TCP/IP Model ‘TCP/ IP is a set of rules that defines how two computers address each other and send data to each other’ as argued by Blank (2004) (p1)[6]. Naturally the above makes it clear that TCP/IP is merely a framework that governs the methods to be deployed in order to enable communication over the internet between two computing devices. As TCP/IP is platform independent in nature, it provides a communication framework that can be deployed across any given operating system on a computing device connected to the Internet or even a dedicated network as opposed to the World Wide Web. This further opens room for development of new protocols and communication standards/rules that can be implemented using the TCP/IP model on any one of its five layers as argued by Rayns et al (2003). Hence securing the information being transferred from one end to another over a given network or the Internet can be accomplished through implementing a combination of protocols to operate within the laye rs of the TCP/IP framework. The five layers of the TCP/IP model are Application Layer Transport Layer Network Layer Data Link Layer and Physical Layer. From the above it is evident that TCP/IP can be implemented in a given network using any number of protocols in each layer of the TCP/IP model depending upon the level of security required and the speed in data transfer. This is because of the fact that the increase in the number of protocols naturally increases the size of the data packet being transferred as part of the communication thus having a direct impact on the speed of communication as argued by Rayns et al (2003). It must also be noted that the protocols presented in each layer of the TCP/IP model shown in Fig 1 is merely a selection and not the exhaustive list of the protocol suite. From the model represented in Fig 1 one should also appreciate that the layers of the TCP/IP model are arranged in a logical fashion so that the protocols closer to the top at the layer 1 associate themselves with the computing applications that handle data encryption and security. The protocols to the bottom of the TCP/IP stack on layer 5 on the other hand associate themselves with the actual data transfer from one end to another through establishing connection and enabling communication between sender and receiver as argued by Blank (2004). As the research presented in this report focuses on the Transport and Network layers of the TCP/IP model a detailed overview on the five layers is beyond the scope of this report. A brief overview on each TCP/IP layer is presented below. Application Layer – This layer of the TCP/IP model comprises of the protocols that associate with the handling of data and the encryption of the information order to effectively transfer the information from one end to another. The application layer is also deemed as the layer of the TCP/IP model that communicates with the actual application that is handling the information prior to its transfer over the Internet. The protocols of the application layer enable the interaction between the computer and the actual web application that performs the business logic associated with the application prior to preparing the information for transfer over the Internet. This makes it clear that the application layer encryption is mainly associated with the segmentation of the data into packets and allocates the associated headers in order to enable their transfer over the Internet. This also makes it clear that the security associated with the information transfer is not implemented at the A pplication Layer of the TCP/IP model. This makes it clear that the application layer protocols are extensively used in case of client server applications where the data transfer between the client and the server is in the full-duplex mode (Feit, 1998[7]). Transport Layer – This is the actual layer that manages the connection between the two computers and the success or failure of the information being transferred as argued by Blank (2004). The purpose of the Transport layer protocol as the name suggests is to ensure the secure and successful transfer of information over the Internet between the communicating parties as argued by Ganesh and Thorsteinson (2003). The process of enabling end-to-end communication for successful data transfer is the major task that is accomplished using the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also interesting to not that the transport layer of the TCP/IP model provides the error tracking, flow control and data fragmentation capabilities independent of the underlying network as argued by Feit (1998). The transport layer of the TCP/IP model also performs the task of assigning the header to the data fragment off the overall information being transferred from one end to another. The transport layer of the TCP/IP model implements two forms of communication strategies. These are connection-oriented and connectionless implementation as discussed below. Connection-Oriented Implementation – The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol of the transport layer accomplishes the connection-oriented strategy of data communication. The connection-oriented approach o data communication corresponds to the process where a connection must be available between the communicating parties in conformance with the authentication and association rules prior to actually performing data transfer. This makes it clear that the data transfer in case of a connection-oriented approach depends on the extent to which the connection being established is live between the communicating computers. This makes it clear that the data transfer in a connection-oriented implementation can be accomplished only with the ability to maintain the connection between the computers thus making the data transfer reliable as argued by Feit (1998). This is naturally because of the fact that termination of the connection of loss of connection established during the cours e of the communication/data transfer would trigger a request to resend the information thus providing room for transferring all the information from one end to another. The session based communication strategies in terms of enabling the communication security is one of the key features of the connection-oriented implementation as prolonged inactivity or termination of the session will naturally terminate the connection established thus protecting the information transferred over the internet. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) which will be discussed in the next section depends on the establishment of a connection-oriented communication strategy in order to ensure that the communication between the two computers using the connection oriented approach will help protect the information being transferred by the transport layer protocol. As discussed earlier, the transfer of information from one end to another in a communication channel is accomplished through segmenting the information in to equal sized segments of data called packets that are assigned a header containing the details of the packet as well as its sequence in the information being transfer. The connection-oriented implementation of the transport layer has following key features Sequential data transfer – This is method which follows the First-in First-out (FIFO) strategy. Thus the sequence in which the data packets are received is the same in which it is being sent from the source computer. This approach is deemed secure to ensure that the information being transferred is not tampered with and loss of one of the packets will enable the sender to resend the entire information again. However, the major disadvantage is that the increase in the size of the information will result in poor performance in terms of speed of data transfer. Higher level of error control –As the connection oriented approach ensures that the connection established is live between the sender and the receiver throughout the entire communication process, it is clear that the error control is accomplished successfully through enabling the sender to resend the packets that were not received in the initial transfer. The control in the loss of packets using the above resend strategy naturally minimizes the error associated with the data transfer. Duplication Control – The connection-oriented strategy also has the inherent ability to eliminate duplicate data packets transferred thus allowing the connection-oriented architecture to ensure consistency in the information being transferred. Congestion Control – The TCP protocol monitors the network traffic as part of the transport layer activities. This ensures that that the session established between the sender and the receiver can transfer the required information successfully prior to reaching the session time-out situation as argued by Feit (1998). The client-server communication over the internet is a classical example for the implementation of a connection oriented strategy in the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model. The use of the PKI in the communication is one of the key aspects of the connection-oriented implementation that makes the TCP protocol a key element in the secure data transfer strategies of the day. Connectionless Implementation – As the name suggests the connectionless implementation is the case where a dedicated connection is not required to complete the data transfer between the communicating computer as argued by Blank (2004). The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used in the case of connectionless implementation where the transfer of the data packets merely comprises the packet order and the source/target details alone. This makes it clear that the transfer of data can be achieved at a higher rate as the authentication and validation of the data transferred is not restricted to a time frame or the session that controls the communication. However, the major issue associated is the lack of security and inaccuracy of the data transferred. Alongside, the key issue with the UDP protocol and the connectionless implementation is the lack of traceability of the information thus resulting in a non-reliable communication channel as argued by Blank (2004). The UDP is thus deemed to be an insecure mode of communication over the internet due to the lack of security measures apart from authentication and identification of the communicative parties. It is further important to appreciate that implementing PKI using the connectionless approach would result the exposure of the information and the lack of effective acknowledgement of the authentication between the communicating computers thus affecting the information security providing room for network attacks that can directly affect the information being transferred through the connection. Network Layer – Blank (2004) argues that the network layer of the TCP/IP model performs the task of delivery of the data within the network one the data packet has reached the appropriate network subnet. This makes it clear that the network layer of the TCP/IP model plays a critical role in identifying the correct network target/destination in order to enable effective communication between the communicating parties as argued by Feit (1998). In case of the World Wide Web, the Network Layer plays the vital role of identifying the destination network and enabling the routing of the packets through the network in order to effectively reach the destination without the data being tampered by unauthorised users. The protocols that are widely used in the Network layer include the Internet Protocol (IP) and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) of the information TCP/IP model which is predominantly used in the Application layer plays a vi tal role in the network layer for enabling routing of the information across the networks in order to effectively reach the target computer in the communication channel established over the Internet. It is further critical to appreciate the fact that the routing of the packets alone is not the task of the network layer protocols but also to enable the transport layer protocol to effectively enable the communication and data transfer between the communicating computers. This makes it clear that network attacks over the internet by hackers to affect the performance of the communicating computers in order to gain unauthorised access is accomplished through manipulating the communication strategies implemented by the protocols in the Transport and Network Layers of the TCP/IP model. The access to information and the actual infringement of the information which is deemed as the consequence of the hacking or network attack is related to the infringement of the information at the applicati on layer protocols that hold the actual information being transferred (Blank, 2004). However, the attacks themselves that facilitate the aforementioned are accomplished through manipulating the procedures associated with the Transport Layer and Network Layer protocols. The attacks typically include spoofing, overloading, flooding etc., which are discussed in detail at chapter 3 of this report. The Data Link Layer and the Physical Layer of the TCP/IP model involve the actual hardware based communication strategies that are beyond the scope of this research. Hence these two layers of the TCP/IP model are not discussed any further. It is important to appreciate the fact that the top three layers of the TCP/IP stack interact frequently in order to enable the secure communication and allocation of computing resources on the computing devices involved in the communication (Blank, 2004). 2.3: Public Key Infrastructure – an overview PKI implements a form of cryptography known as the asymmetric cryptography in order to enable secure communication between two computers over the Internet as argued by Todd and Johnson (2001). This process mainly involves the use of a public key and private key that are used for encrypting and decrypting the information at the client and server ends respectively (Blank, 2004). The process of encryption is beyond the scope of this research although its role in the secure communication and the extent to which a hacker can manipulate the authentication strategies for launching an attack is relevant to the research. Hence the discussion in this section mainly concerns with the handshake and the communication strategies deployed along with an overview of the players in the PKI. This will help in identifying the various attacks plausible and the level manipulation that can be implemented by the hacker over the protocols used in order to infringe the communication between the client and ser ver computers. It is deemed that the PKI is a reliable communication strategy to implement secure communication through the use of Trusted Third Party (TTP) authentication and approval of the overall communication process between the server and the client computers. The key components of the PKI infrastructure that enable successful and reliable communication over the internet are discussed below Certificate Authority (CA) – The CA is the issuer and control of the public key and the digital certificate associated with the authentication and transfer of secure information over the connection established using the TCP protocol. The primary role of the CA is to generate the public and the private keys simultaneously for a given server computer or service provider (Blank, 2004). The public key as the name suggests is made available over the public domain for encryption/decryption of the information at the client-end of the connection. The private key is not shared and stored at the server which is used for encryption/decryption of the information as applicable at the server end of the connection established for communication. From the above description it is evident that the role of the CA in the PKI is pivotal for the effective implementation of the PKI for secure communication free of network attacks. This is because, if the server hosting the CA application is attacked either using cross site scripting or flood attacks, the public keys stored as well as the associated certificates for verification are compromised thus resulting in the hacker gaining control over the communication channel without the knowledge of the server or the client as argued by Blank (2004). This makes it clear that the security at the CA computer is critical to establish a reliable TTP computer for implementing connection-oriented communication using TCP protocol of the TCP/IP model. Registering Authority (RA) – The RA as the name implies is the verifier of the digital certificate before it is issued to a requestor as argued by Todd and Johnson (2001). The role of the RA computer in the PKI implementation is to enable an independent authorisation of the digital certificates issued thus providing a secondary verification of the information prior to communicating to the server. This presence of an independent verifying program or computer as part of the communication makes the PKI a reliable communication strategy to implemented connection-oriented communication over the internet in a secure fashion. It is also deemed to the key weakness of the PKI strategy owing to the fact that the reliability of the RA as a TTP in the communication process dictates the effectiveness of the communication and the protection of the server from intruder attacks as argued by Todd and Johnson (2001). However, the reliability of the CA or RA is not the issue of debate in this re search but the potential attacks that threaten the stability of the computers hosting the CA and RA programs in order to enable secure connection oriented implementation across the Internet. The key area where the attacks can be accomplished by hackers to disable the RA or the CA computer eventually compromising the information held within is the use process of handshake where the RA or the CA computer is expected to receive an acknowledgement (ACK) from the requesting computer for each message successfully communicated. It is through manipulating these handshake communications a CA or RA can be compromised as the communication channel is expected to open for a specific time period to receive the ACK as well as allocate sufficient resources to complete the data transfer. Abuse of this feature is one of the major areas where the connection-oriented communication faces threat of attacks. These are discussed in chapter 3 elaborately. Directories – The directories are the locations on the public domain that host the public keys for enabling the encryption of the information. The keys are normally held in more than one location in order to enable easy/quick access to the information as well as a verification strategy to ensure that the key retrieved is indeed the valid one for data transfer between the client a given server computer. Certificate Management System (CMS) – This is the application that controls or monitors the certificates issued and facilitates the verification process. The CMS forms the core of the PKI infrastructure as the CA and RA computers in the given PKI implementation are expected to host a validated CMS program to enable the connection-oriented communication between the client and the server. The key issue associated with the case described above is the fact that the CMS program itself is an independent application and hence its reliability/robustness to prevent malicious attacks alone dictates the extent to which a given CA or RA is reliable over the Internet. The key security strategy in case of the PKI implementation is the sharing of the public key whilst retaining the private key at the server computer as argued by Burnett and Paine (2001) [8]. This strategy allows the server computer to effectively encrypt or decrypt the information without depending upon the public key and hence leading a two pronged attack as the information encrypted using private key can be deciphered using the public key and vice versa. Although the use of the two independent keys helps overcome the security threats to the information being transferred, the transfer process itself is not governed by the PKI. This is the major weakness of the PKI infrastructure that allows room for malicious attacks that can hamper the performance by the CA, Ra or the host server computers as argued by Burnett and Paine (2001). From the above discussion it is evident that the security established using the PKI is mainly dependant on the following key elements of the PKI infrastructure CA and RA – The validity and reliability of these computers play a vital role in the effective implementation of the PKI. Apart from the fact that the client computer sending the information depends upon these computers security of the information in its entirety, it is also clear that the availability of these computers and their responses in terms of session time control and preventing session time-out cases are critical to enable successful communication in a connection-oriented implementation using the TCP protocol. An attack on the hosting server for the CA or the RA mainly in terms of flooding or denial of Service will result in the failure of the PKI infrastructure in terms of lack of availability. This situation is one of the major elements that must be addressed as part of the security strategies to be implemented on the transport layer protocols. Encryption Algorithm – The encryption algorithm used for issuing the public and private keys is another element that influences the security and reliability of the PKI as argued by Burnett and Paine (2001). The effectiveness of the hashing algorithm used for the purpose is not only essential for ensuring the security of the information through encryption but also dictates the size of the information for transmission after encryption as well as the speed associated with the data transfer for a given encryption strategy. As the complexity of the encryption algorithm naturally increases the size of the data being transferred thus affecting the speed associated with the communication, it is critical to establish a balance between security and speed in order to enable effective communication over an established connection. It is also important to note that the use of encryption algorithm dictates the extent to which a hacker can hack into the information that is being transfer whil st launching a transport/network layer attack as argued by Burnett and Paine (2001). It is deemed that the hackers through launching malicious attacks at the transport layer or the network layer tend to utilise the time gap to decipher the information being transferred in order to use the data for personal benefits. This makes it clear that the code hacking at the protocol level mainly attribute to the speed with which a given payload data transferred over a connection can be decrypted prior to termination of the connection itself as argued by Burnett and Paine (2001). From the above arguments we can deduce that the encryption poses the threat of single point of failure to the PKI in terms either being weak to prevent infringement or highly strong affecting the communication speed as argued by Nash et al (2001). Advantages or benefits of PKI The major benefits of the PKI include the following The TTP presence enables higher level of security through verification by independent entities in the communication process. The CA and RA in the PKI play a vital role in achieving the aforementioned. The dedication of resources for developing stronger algorithms to generate reliable public and private keys is yet another advantage associated with the PKI implementation. This makes it clear that the transport layer protocol (TCP) of the network layer protocol (IP, ICMP) weaknesses in terms of the request for resend and other key elements of connection verification can be overcome through robust algorithms. The growth f the electronic commerce at an exponential rate is one of the key factors that attribute to the availability of resources dedicated to the development of the PKI security strategies (Nash et al, 2001). The security infrastructure behind the storage and retrieval of the public keys is yet another area where the reliability and effectiveness of the PKI is evident. The fact that in case of reliable CA and RA, the security is indeed robust and the information being transferred is secure as well as the communication process as argued by Nash et al (2001). Constraints, Weaknesses and threats TTP reliability and costs – As discussed before the major issue is the TTP reliability. The involvement of the TTP not only questions the

Theoretical Perspectives On Globalization

Theoretical Perspectives On Globalization The last century has seen a growth in the intensity of globalisation. It is argued to be one of the main forces that have shaped politics, economies and societies. The purpose of this assignment is to evaluate one of the main theoretical perspectives on globalization. It will begin by defining the concept globalisation. Following this, the assignment will outline two key perspectives n globalisation phenomenon; the hyperglobalists perspective and sceptics perspective. Thereafter, the assignment will examine one policy concern and how it links to the sceptics perspective on globalisation. The assignment will then conclude. Definition of Globalisation The concept of globalisation has been argued to have no distinct definition, is challenging to distinguish and has often been used ambiguously. The term has a theoretical construct that is itself contested and open for various meanings and inflections (Kellner, 1997:25). The meaning of globalisation is dependent on the context in which it is used. It has been argued to be a prominent topic among geographers and sociologists as well as economists and political scientists, and is studied within every paradigm, from neo-classical economics to post-modern social theory to realist international relations theory to Marxism (Radice, 2000: 6, cited in Sudgen and Wilson, 2005:15). Globalisation includes distinct phrases such as global culture, free trade, internationalization and interdependence. According to Mursheed (2001:1) the term is employed in the enumerative sense to define a reaction to increased integration, and the policies that follow from there. On the other hand, Held and McGrew (1999) portrays globalization through the use of four main changes, primarily, it encompasses the eradication of borders as a result of economic, social, and political behaviour. The subsequent characteristic contains the growth of links between culture, trade flows and investment. The third characteristic is the intensification of the combination of consumer preference, ideas, goods, information, capital and people. The last characteristic comprises of the prospective global impact that local developments have on other economies, perhaps resulting in global consequences. Held and McGrew further argue that these are the characteristics that illustrate globalization as remarkably fluid. Theoretical perspectives on globalisation The concept of globalisation has provoked much disagreement and discussions about its benefits and conceptualization. There are two schools of thought that argue two extreme accounts of globalization and its impact. These are referred to as the hyper-globalists and the sceptics. Both views provide a distinct perspective on this topic. Hyperglobalists generally recognize the globalization phenomenon as an element with positive economic, social and political outcomes. Globalisation is considered a process which involves interconnectedness and shapes global integration. According to Ohmae (1995), globalisation represents a new phenomenon whereby international law has predetermined the conclusion of the nation-state. Optimists promote the idea that globalisation established a single global market capable of managing itself. In contrast, sceptics argue that a discussion on globalization condemns the characteristics of globalization supported by the hyperglobalists (Hirst and Thomspon, 199 9). Sceptics reject the notion of a new globalization and argue that globalisation is not unique and has been a longstanding phenomenon. However, sceptics do not oppose globalisation altogether but oppose it in its current form (Deadroff, 2003). Stiglitz (2002) and Kellner (1997) argue that globalization creates dissatisfaction, and is viewed as a new form of capitalism or imperialism which inherently negatively affects tradition, culture and less developed countries. The sceptics perspective on globalisation Having highlighted both extreme perspectives on globalisation, the assignment will now focus on one main theoretical perspective chosen for this particular assignment which is the sceptics perspective. The sceptics argue that globalisation is a necessary myth to conceal developed countries and institutions goal of expanding neo liberal policies globally (Held et al, 1999). They assume that globalisation is a tool used by those in power such as America and Europe to dominate what happens in the world. However, Sceptics do not presuppose a desire to eliminate globalisationbutagree that many aspects of it is awful (Deardroff, 2003:643). For example, sceptics argue that although globalisation benefits developed economies it indirectly disadvantages less developed countries. In 1999 the United Nations found that there were less than 20 less developed countries that had positive gains as a result of globalisation (Shangquan, 2000). The research illustrated that the difference of income per capita reported between the richest countries and the poorest countries had increased from 30 times in 1960 and to 70 times in 2000. Consequently, the difference signifies the magnitude to which globalisation benefits developing countries, however, it is evident that developing countries do not benefit as much as their developed counterparts. Therefore, globalisation is argued to unfairly redistribute income, thereby increasing the wage discrepancies between the skilled and unskilled labor force (Jenkins, 2006). This inevitably creates societal and hierarchical disparities which inherently has an impact on local culture. Culture and globalization Sceptics argue that globalization threatens local tradition and culture (Kellner, 1997). Globalisation is argued to have diffused consumer belief systems through imposing a new sense of identity, displacing traditional cultures and ways of life. According to Hannerz (1991) consumer preferences of products, for example food, movies and music, enables consumers to embrace the culture and tradition of the producers country as it is circulated through distribution. To illustrate, Americanization, which refers to American culture has flooded non-western markets with products priced at resoundingly cheap rates which have been argued to have threatened the availability of local produce resulting in the displacement of local farmers. Fundamentally, host countries purchase American goods which essentially encourage local people into embracing the culture consequently resulting in the reshaping of their own culture. There is a fear among developing nations of losing their tradition and identit y as a nation, for example, countries such as China. China has evidently blocked global cultural influences from accessing their markets through the limitation of access to the internet, media and publications. Conversely, globalisation has been argued to have evidently caused an increase in migration rates and import rates in the UK over the years. Whilst the movement of produce has been enjoyed by the UK, the movement of people has not. Migration has brought forth people with different cultural backgrounds to the UK, which however, has been feared to have had an adverse impact on the English culture and welfare system. Movement has been gained through employment in transnational companies by the educated few whilst the poor have been restricted to illegal means. Nevertheless, in terms of culture, UK has seen an increase in diversity and a high level of the importation of different cultures disseminated through the re-distribution of produce sought from foreign countries which are less developed countries. Critical evaluation Hyperglobalists disregard cultural differences and perceive culture as a variant such as consumer preferences as a result it does not have an impact on the global economy. The new globalization era governs economic, social, political and cultural orders through government and institutional policies (Deardroff, 2003). This has been evidenced through institutions such as The International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organisation, the World Bank and transnational companies. Held et al (1999), note that these institutions facilitate and cultivate the globalisation phenomenon. For example, the World Trade Organisation, which is one of the primary hyperglobalists institutions has influenced universal integration and has an international reputation for its endeavours in shaping the universal market and trade. These institutions are often referred to as the key actors of globalization, argued to have superseded government authority (Klein and Naomi, 2000). However, within these institutions s ceptics argue that decisions made are mostly controlled by the rich countries, e.g. America (Deardroff, 2003). Conclusion To conclude, globalisation is a phenomenon that has been heavily debated from different perspectives over the last century. Having examined the concept and perspectives on globalization this assignment has highlighted the sceptics perspectives on globalisation and its impact on culture. The assignment argues that globalisation is influenced by American culture, dominance and regulations. Culture is important and has been vehemently influenced by globalisation, through the diffusion of western produce, technology, and publication in non-western local markets and homes. The impact socially can be argued to have had both negative and positive results. It is evident that globalisation has had positive impacts on economies and politics, through attempts to improve the health of people in poor countries and attempts to reduce pollution, however, culturally the impact has not been a desired one. Word Count-1403

The Human Brain :: essays research papers

INTRODUCTION The human body is divided into many different parts called organs. All of the parts are controlled by an organ called the brain, which is located in the head. The brain weighs about 2. 75 pounds, and has a whitish-pink appearance. The brain is made up of many cells, and is the control centre of the body. The brain flashes messages out to all the other parts of the body. The messages travel in very fine threads called nerves. The nerves and the brain make up a system somewhat like telephone poles carrying wires across the city. This is called the nervous system. The nerves in the body don't just send messages from the brain to the organs, but also send messages from the eyes, ears, skin and other organs back to your brain. Some nerves are linked directly to the brain. Others have to reach the brain through a sort of power line down the back, called the spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The brain doesn't just control your organs, but also can think and remember. That part of the brain is called the mind. PROTECTING THE BRAIN Twenty-eight bones make up the skull. Eight of these bones are interlocking plates. These plates form the cranium. The cranium provides maximum protection with minimum weight, the ideal combination. The other twenty bones make up the face, jaw and other parts of the skull. Another way the brain keeps it self safe is by keeping itself in liquid. Nearly one fifth of the blood pumped by the heart is sent to the brain. The brain then sends the blood through an intricate network of blood vessels to where the blood is needed. Specialized blood vessels called choroid plexuses produce a protective cerebrospinal fluid. This fluid is what the brain literally floats in. A third protective measure taken by the brain is called the blood brain barrier. This barrier consists of a network of unique capillaries. These capillaries are filters for harmful chemicals carried by the blood, but do allow oxygen, water and glucose to enter the brain. THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE BRAIN The brain is divided into three main sections. The area at the front of the brain is the largest. Most of it is known as the cerebrum. It controls all of the movements that you have to think about, thought and memory.

Zen in the Art of Archery Essay -- essays research papers

Zen in the Art of Archery, by Eugen Herrigel describes the ritualistic arts of discipline and focus that the Zen religion focuses around. In this book, Herrigel describes many aspects of how archery is, in fact, not a sport, but an art form, and is very spiritual to those in the east. The process he describes shows how he overcame his initial inhibitions and began to look toward new ways of seeing and understanding. In the beginning of the book Herrigel tells us that he is writing about a ritual and religious practice, â€Å"whose aim consists in hitting a spiritual goal, so that fundamentally the marksman aims at himself and may even succeed in hitting himself.† (Herrigel p. 4) Through his studies, the author discovers that within the Zen ritual actions, archery in this case, there lies a deeper meaning. Herrigel explains throughout this book that it is not through the actual physical aspect of shooting arrows at targets that archery is Zen, but through the art and spiritual ity through which it is performed. It is not merely shooting an arrow to hit a target, but becoming the target yourself and then, in turn, hitting yourself spiritually. By meeting this spiritual goal, you will then meet the physical goal. The struggle then is, therefore not with the arrow or the target but within oneself. Archery, in this book, was the way that the author found his way into Zen Buddhism. One of the most important lessons that Herrigel’s master taught him was, to correctly master the art of ar...

Organization Essay

This essay will argue that it is imperative for organizations to have strong leaders and a strong culture in the post bureaucratic era because leaders set a direction for people. They help us visualize what we might achieve and they encourage us and inspire us. Together, with a strong business culture, organizations will surely be successful and continue to soar in its career. In the first section of this essay there will be an explanation on what is the post bureaucratic era and how it has changed overtime . Subsequently, Max Webers theories as well as Fredrick Taylors theory on scientific management will be discussed and from this, draw out the dramatic effect on an organization the post bureaucratic era has had from previous years until today. In the second section of this essay it will demonstrate what leadership is and why organisations need strong leaders, through discussing the articles of Bolden and Gosling (2006) and House’s Path Goal theory on leadership. The third part of the essay will consist of Rosen’s article on The Christmas Party (Rosen, 1988). This article will reveal what is a strong culture and how it is crucial for a business organization to have. Finally, after summarizing the arguments in the conclusion , this essay will display just how important it is for organisations to have a strong leader and a strong culture. The Post-Bureaucratic Era  Bureaucratic management undertook an autocratic approach in the management and leadership of an organization. Bureaucracy is an organizational form consisting of a hierarchy of â€Å"differentiated knowledge and expertise in which rules and disciplines are arranged not only hierarchy in regard to each other but also parallel † (Clegg et. al , 2011). Over time, what people thought of bureaucracy has been changing constantly in order to adapt to the new lifestyle and perspectives that each organization has. In the article called † Being an active member of a corporate alumini network† , the writer explains that bureaucratic management focused on dividing organisations into hierarchies, having small repetitive tasks in order to maximise output and strong lines of authority and control. People were treated like machines and they did not have any input in the business. Conversely , post-bureaucratic management converts bureaucratic management as they move from coercive power to a more ‘soft dominant’ approach. Through incentives and having a say, it makes workers feel more included and therefore can maximise productivity.

History of Great Depression Essay

Great depression affected the whole world catastrophically and is certainly the most severe depression ever experienced among industrialized western countries. Many economists and historians cite the crashing of stock market as the first and foremost reason for the Great Depression. However, the dispute among the economists is still continued on the exact causes for the Great Depression. The listing of causes may vary from economist to economist depending on the Keynesian view or Monetarist view, but one thing which is agreed upon by all the economists is that Great Depression is the result of combination of many factors, both monetary and economic. The Great Depression was started in US in the year, 1929 when the stock market was crashed and lasted till 1939 when US stepped into World War II Throughout the year 1929 – 1939, US economy has gone through many severe disasters that exacerbated the society colossally and it’s after effects were continued for several years (Nelson, n.d.). Great Depression causes over a timeline (1929-1942): None can name the single root cause of Great Depression because it is widely accepted that numerous factors were cited as responsible for this economic downturn. However, one of the main causes of this economic downturn (prior to 1929) was a combination of unbalanced allocation of income and the widespread stock market conjecture in the late 1920s. Money was used to be disseminated disproportionately between rich and the poor, between agriculture and the industry and US and Europe. The stock market was synthetically kept high leading to huge market crashes and unsound economy. This unequal distribution of wealth along with market crashes led to huge economic dip in America. Apart from this, some of the prominent causes of Great Depression, starting from 1929 are listed as follows: Â · Stock Market Crash (1929): In 1929, when Herbert Hoover became the president of US, the Great Depression hit the America badly leading the society towards economic downturn for almost a decade. The economists mistakenly consider stock market crash and Great Depression to be similar because stock market crashed prior to Great Depression on October 24, often called as Black Monday and on October 29, called as Black Tuesday. In actual, stock market crash was just one of the reasons responsible for Great Depression. In that crash, investors lost around $40 billion ($16 billion in a month), an exorbitant number! By 1930, stock market was able to recuperate its few losses but that were not adequate and unfortunately America entered into appalling stage of recession, called as Great Depression. Â · Bank Failures (1930): By 1930, almost 9000-11000 banks were shut. This was due to the failure of banks. The bank deposits were uninsured and due to the failure people lost their savings. The few still surviving banks stopped lending loans as they were unsure of their own stability and of economic conditions. This resulted in reduction of purchasing power of people leading to high unemployment rate. Â · Reduction in demand and supply (1930): The stock market crash and bank failures led to reduced purchasing power of people due to which inventory began to accrue, people stopped purchasing items so as to hoard money, liquidity preferences increased, etc. This all contributed towards reduced supply of items in the market, industries and factories which were either shut or stopped working, production was closed, etc. due to which unemployment increased. Â · Increment in unemployment (1930): Due to factories and industries being closed, people were fired from their jobs which increased the unemployment colossally. 6000 people started selling apples on the New York’s streets at 5cents per piece. As people were losing their jobs, they were unable to pay for the items obtained on installment basis and their items were retrieved. Gross National product (GNP) fell by 9.4%. The unemployment rate rose above 25% which meant, of course, even less spending that can help assuage the economic situation. Several grocery stores get raid and their items get stolen. Many foreign workers especially Mexican has to face the fury of Americans as they perceive them to be stealing their jobs (Kelly, 2010). Â · Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930): To defend the American companies, the government signed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act in June 1930. According to this Act, tariffs were increased to a tax of 50% on the imported goods in the US. The real intention behind this was to increase the prices and wages but history shows that it further aggravated the depression because due to this Act, the trade was sharply decreased within the US as the US government in the pursuit of trying to protect their own industries, increased tariffs on imports that led to restricting the trade between the countries. According to economists, it was the wrong decision to initiate this Act at this phase when the economy was in the roar of downturn. About 1000 economists signed an appeal begging the government not enact it and 60 other countries passed penalizing tariffs in reaction to this. Â · Laissez-faire Policy (1932): The depression continued to deteriorate the US economy. The rebellions and discontent spread throughout the country, GNP continued to fall, this time it fell by 13.4%, stocks had lost 80% of their 1930 values, as the Government continued its non-interventionist, laissez-faire policy (Amatecon, 2007). Consequences of Great Depression: The consequences that arise as a result of the above declared causes curved the US economy into a large-scale economic slump. As a result, the Great Depression became the worldwide business downturn of 1930 as it affected almost all the countries of the world. International commerce declined quickly. The countries increased the tariffs on the imports to shield their own economies and industries due to which international trade declined sharply. The tax revenues, personal incomes and earnings started declining. This affected both, the countries that exported raw materials and industrialized countries. Government decreased their spending which led to decreased consumer demand resulting in decreased supply and increased unemployment. The construction came to a standstill in nations. The nations changed their heads and the type of administration. Germany was in the weakest condition because of the massive arrears the country was hampered by following WWI. The depression effects in Germany led to the rise to the authority of Adolf Hitler. Japanese invaded China and setup their mines and industries in Manchuria. China was of the opinion that this economic growth will reduce the depression. The depression had intense political effects as well. In Germany and Japan, as a result of depression militarist powers arose who implemented forceful foreign policies that led to the WW-II. The government intrusion in the US and the Britain ultimately resulted in the creation of welfare systems. Many investors lost their money and several were wiped out, losing everything. Banks, stores, industries and multinational companies came to an end leaving about 15million people jobless and impoverished. People came to depend on government and charities for money and food. All in all the Great Depression brought about a huge disaster and worldwide economic crises leaving the world immersed into terrible recession (Dinkins, 2002). The period of 1933-1939 proved to be fruitful for US economy. The president was replaced by Franklin Roosevelt. The government intervened and raised tax rates for highest earners in the country from 25% to 63% so as to ensure the fair division of wealth within the country. A new deal was signed to control unemployment by work-creation schemes such as painting of the post offices and street cleaning. Â  GNP started increasing, unemployment was decreased, tax rates were further increased to 79%, and retirement benefits were paid to senior citizens. The production raised by monstrous 50%, thus eradicating the depression completely from the economy. However, the move was little too late (Croft, 2010). Now economies should consider the recessions and depressions as the part and parcel of the life because even after applying all the cures and preventive measures we are still living in a period of recession. The implications for Great Depression demonstrate that it is obligatory and advisable to take timely decisions so as to completely get rid of such downward swings in business cycles. Although economists believe that it is not possible to completely eradicate the economic downturns from an economy because what goes around comes around, but government can take preventive measures so as to control such recessionary periods. In this way the effects of depression can be abridged so that society can be saved from being engulfed into the excessive stages of depression.